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Mikroagresyon ve Japon Müslüman Kadınlar

Yıl 2023, Din, Felsefe ve Toplum, 919 - 937, 30.12.2023
https://doi.org/10.14395/hid.1344020

Öz

Mikroagresyon, azınlıklara, dezavantajlı veya marjinal gruplara yönelik olumsuz etkileri olan gizli, çoğunlukla kasıtlı ve kötü niyetli olmayan ancak ayrımcı veya önyargılı tarafları bulunan tavır, eylem veya konuşmalardır. Kasıtlı veya kötü niyetli olmasalar bile, kümülatif ve günlük doğaları nedeniyle, bunları yaşayanlar üzerinde yine de zararlı etkilere sahip olabilmektedirler. Bu etkiler; öfke, stress, hayal kırıklığı, kaygı, kendinden şüphe duyma ve depresyon gibi duygusal etkilerin yanı sıra hipertansiyon ve kalp hastalıkları gibi strese bağlı fizyolojik etkileri de içermektedir. Bu nedenle mikroagresyonlar maruz kalanların yaşamlarını ciddi bir biçimde etkileyebilmektedirler. Mikroagresyon üç şekilde gerçekleşebilmektedir: mikro-hakaretler, mikro-aşağılamalar ve mikro-değersizleştirmeler. Ayrıca ırka, cinsiyete, yaşa, engele veya dine yönelik olmak üzere pek çok türü bulunmaktadır.
Japonya’nın Müslüman nüfusu yaklaşık 150.000 civarındadır. Bunun büyük bir çoğunluğu göçmen Müslümanlardır. Yaklaşık %10’unun etnik Japon Müslüman olduğu tahmin edilmektedir. Bu nedenle Japon Müslümanlar azınlık içinde azınlık konumundadırlar. Hem göçmen hem de Japon Müslümanlar Japon toplumundaki hayatlarından oldukça memnun olsalar da, Japon Müslüman kadınlar başörtüleri nedeniyle toplumda kolayca Müslüman olarak fark edilmekte ve zaman zaman mikroagresyonlara maruz kalabilmektedirler. Etnografik bir çalışma olan bu araştırma, Japon Müslüman kadınların Japonya'daki günlük yaşamları sırasında karşılaştıkları dini mikroagresyonlara odaklanmaktadır. Veriler araştırmacının Japonya, Tokyo'daki yaklaşık iki buçuk yıllık çalışmaları sırasında elde edilmiştir. Katılımcı gözlem, yarı yapılandırılmış mülakat ve saha notu verileri, Japon kadınların deneyimledikleri dini mikroagresyon türlerini ve bunlara yönelik tepkilerini keşfetmek için tematik olarak analiz edilmiştir. Ayrıca dini mikroagresyonların onların yaşamları üzerinde ne ölçüde etkili olduğunu görmek amaçlanmıştır.
Bu çalışmada Japon Müslüman kadınların üç tür mikroagresyon ile karşılaştıkları tespit edilmiştir: yabancı sanılma, kişisel irade güçlerinin küçümsenmesi ve saldırgan şakalar. Japon toplumu başörtü takan Japon Müslüman kadınlara aşina değildir, bu sebeple karşılaştıklarında yabancı olduklarını varsayıp İngilizce iletişim kurmaya çalışmaktadırlar. İlk mikroagresyon budur: yabancı sanılmak. İkincisi, toplumun Japon Müslüman kadınların din değiştirme ve başörtüsü kullanma sebeplerini eşlerinin ya da erkek arkadaşlarının karar ve ısrarları olduğunu varsaymasıdır. Bu Japon Müslüman kadınların kişisel irade güçlerini hafife almaktır. Sonuncusu ise terörizm ve akıl sağlığı gibi konular üzerine stereotipik ve saldırgan şakalardır. Bu üç tip mikrosaldırganlığa karşı Japon Müslüman kadınların dört şekilde tepki gösterdikleri görülmüştür; bıkkınlık, kendilerini kanıtlama çabaları, ikili hayatlar sürme ve son olarak da toplumdan kopma. İlk adım bıkkınlıktır. Günlük olarak uğraşmak durumunda kaldıkları varsayımlardan yorulmuşlardır. Ardından daha ciddi adımlar gelmektedir. Bazıları verdikleri kararların doğruluğunu ve İslam’ın doğruluğunu ve güzelliğini ispat etme çabasına girmektedir. Bazıları ise toplumla uğraşmaktansa dini kimliklerini gizlemeyi ve gizli birer Müslüman olarak gündelik yaşamlarına devam etmeyi tercih etmektedir. Müslüman olmayan Japon arkadaşlarının, ailelerinin ve tanıdıklarının önünde başörtüsü takmamaktadırlar. Açıktan namaz kılmamakta ve helal olmayanı tüketmemek için başka bahanelere başvurmaktadırlar. Son olarak, mikroagresyonların belki en ciddi etkisi, bazıları da kendilerini Japon toplumundan uzaklaştırmaktadır. İşlerini bırakmakta ve gayrimüslim arkadaşları ile görüşmemeye başlamaktadırlar. Yaşadıkları mikroagresyonlar onları Japon toplumundan uzaklaştırmaktadır.
Mikroagresyon sosyal bilimciler arasında bir hala yeni bir tartışma konusudur. Doğası ya da zararlı sonuçları konusundaki şüpheler nedeniyle farkındalık artırma faaliyetleri yeterince yaygın değildir. Bu nedenle, daha eşit ve kapsayıcı toplumlar yaratmak için mikroagresyonu ve sonuçlarını daha iyi anlamaya ve açıklamaya yönelik çalışmalarının artırılması gerekmektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Basford, Tessa E. et. al. “Do You See What I See? Perceptions of Gender Microaggressions in the Workplace”. Psychology of Women Quarterly 38/3 (2014), 340-349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313511420
  • Capodilupo, Christina M. et. al. “The Manifestation of Gender Microaggressions”. Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestations, Dynamics and Impact. ed. Derald W. Sue. 193-216. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
  • Foley, Sharon et. al. “Perceptions of Discrimination and Justice: Are There Gender Differences in Outcomes?”. Group & Organization Management 30/4 (2005), 421-450. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601104265054
  • Freeman, Lauren – Stewart, Heather. “Microaggressions in Clinical Medicine”. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 28/4 (2018), 411-449. https://doi.org/10.1353/ken.2018.0024
  • Gee, Gilbert C. et. al. “Racial Discrimination and Health Among Asian Americans: Evidence, Assessment, and Directions for Future Research”, Epidemiologic Reviews 31 (2009), 130-151. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxp009
  • Haidt, Jonathan. “The Unwisest Idea on Campus: Commentary on Lilienfeld (2017)”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 12/1 (2017), 176-177. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616667050
  • Harrel, Jules P. et. al. “Physiological Responses to Racism and Discrimination: An Assesment of the Evidence”. American Journal of Public Health 93/2 (2003), 243-248. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.93.2.243
  • Jana, Tiffany - Baran, Michael. Subtle Acts of Exclusion: How to Understand, Identify, and Stop Microaggressions. Kindle Edition. Broadway: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2020.
  • Kristen P. Jones et. al. “Not So Subtle: A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Correlates of Subtle and Overt Discrimination”. Journal of Management XX/X (2013), 1-26.
  • Kaplin, Daniel. “Microaggressions and Macroaggressions in Religiously Diverse Communities”. The Official Journal of the New York State Psychological Association XXIX/3 (2012), 16-24.
  • Kaskan, Emily R. et. al. “Microaggression and Female Athletes”. Sex Roles 74 (2016), 275-287.
  • Keller, Richard M. – Galgay, Corinne E. “Microagressive Experiences of People with Disabilities”. Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestations, Dynamics and Impact. ed. Derald W. Sue. 241-267. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
  • Kiekens, Wouter J. et. al.“Sexuality and Gender Identity-Based Microaggressions: Differences by Sexual and Gender Identity, and Sex Assigntment at Birth Among Dutch Youth”. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37 (2022), 21293-21319. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211056729
  • Kocalan, Elif Büşra. Müslümanlaşma Sürecine Sosyolojik Bir Yaklaşım: Japon Müslümanlar. Çorum: Hitit Üniversitesi, Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, 2021.
  • Kocalan, Elif Büşra. “Four Motivations of Conversion to Islam: Japanese Muslims”. Bilimname 47 (2022), 713-754. https://doi.org/10.28949/bilimname.1066164
  • Kocalan, Elif Büşra. “Yeni Dinî Kimlik Oluşum, Şekillenme ve İfade Etme Aşamalarında Sosyal Medyanın Rolü: Japon Müslümanlar Örneği”. Bülent Ecevit Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 9/2 (2022), 227-263. https://doi.org/10.33460/beuifd.1101617
  • Lilienfeld, Scott O. “Microaggressions: Strong Claims, Inadequate Evidence”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 12/1 (2017), 138-169. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616659391
  • Nadal, Kevin L. et. al. “Religious Microaggressions in the United States: Mental Health Implications for Religious Minority Groups”. Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestations, Dynamics and Impact. ed. Derald W. Sue. 287-310. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
  • Nadal, Kevin L. et. al. “Sexual Orientation and Transgender Microaggressions: Implications for Mental Health and Counseling”. Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestation, Dynamics and Impact. Ed. Derald W. Sue. 217-240. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
  • Nadal, Kevin L. et. al. “Subtle and Overt Forms of Islamophobia: Microaggressions toward Muslim Americans”. Journal of Muslim Mental Health VI/2 (2012), 15-37. https://doi.org/10.3998/jmmh.10381607.0006.203
  • Nadal, Kevin L. et.al. “The Adverse Impact of Racial Microaggressions on College Students’ Self-Esteem”. Journal of College Student Development 55/5 (2014), 461-474. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2014.0051
  • Obuse, Kieko. “Living Compound Marginality: Experiences of a Japanese Muslim Woman”. Religions 10 (2019), 434-458. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10070434
  • Pierce, Chester M. “Psychiatric Problems of the Black Minority”. American Handbook of Psychiatry. ed. S. Arieti. 512-523. New York: NY Basic Books, 1974.
  • Pierce, Chester. “Stress Analogs of Racism and Sexism: Terrorism, Torture, and Disaster”. Mental Health, Racism, and Sexism. ed. Charles V. Willie et. al. 277-293. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995.
  • Scheitle, Christopher et. al. “The Association between Religious Discrimination and Health: Disaggregating by Types of Discrimination Experiences, Religious Tradition, and Forms of Health”. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 0 (2023), 21. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12871
  • Solorzano, Daniel et. al. “Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students”. Journal of Negro Education 69/1-2 (2000), 60-73.
  • Steele, Claude M. – Aronson, Joshua M. “Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69/5 (1995), 797-811. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.69.5.797
  • Sue, Derald W. Overcoming our Racism: The Journey to Liberation. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
  • Sue, Derald W. et al. “Racial Microaggressions and the Asian American Experience”. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 13/1 (2007), 72-81. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.72
  • Sue, Derald W. et. al. “Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Implications for Clinical Practice”. American Psychologist 62/4 (2007), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
  • Swim, Janet K. – Cohen, Laurie L. “Overt, Covert and Subtle Sexism: A Comparison Between the Attitudes Toward Women and Modern Sexism Scales”. Psychology of Women Quarterly 21 (1997), 103-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00103.x
  • Swim, Janet K. et. al. “Everyday Sexism: Evidence for its Incidence, Nature, and Psychological Impact from Three Daily Diary Studies”. Journal of Social Issues 57/1 (2001), 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00200
  • Swim, Janet K. et. al. “Understanding Subtle Sexism: Detection and Use of Sexist Language”. Sex Roles 51/3/4 (2004), 117-128. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000037757.73192.06
  • Tanada, Hirofumi. “世界と日本のムスリム人口-2018 年” (World and Japan Muslim Population-2018). 早稲田大学人間科学研究 (Waseda University Faculty of Human Sciences Research) 32/2 (2019), 253-262.
  • Thomas, Kenneth R. “Macrononsense in Multiculturalism”. American Psychologist 63/4 (2007), 274-275. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.274
  • Wang, Jennifer et al. “When the Seemingly Innocuous “Stings”: Racial Microaggressions and Their Emotional Consequences”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37/12 (2011), 1666– 1678. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0146167211416130
  • Williams, Monnica T. “Microaggressions: Clarification, Evidence, and Impact”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 15/1 (2020), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619827499
  • Yosso, Tara J. et. al. “Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate for Latina/o Undergraduates”. Harvard Educational Review 79/4 (2009), 659-690.

Microaggression and Japanese Muslim Women

Yıl 2023, Din, Felsefe ve Toplum, 919 - 937, 30.12.2023
https://doi.org/10.14395/hid.1344020

Öz

Microaggressions are subtle, mostly unintentional and not ill-intended but discriminatory or biased behaviours, actions or conversations that have negative impacts towards minorities, disadvantaged or marginalised groups. Even though they are not intentional or not ill-intended, due to their cumulative nature, they still can have harmful effects on those who experience them. These effects include emotional ones such as anger, stress, frustration, anxiety, self-doubt and depression as well as stress-related physiological diseases: hypertension and heart diseases. Therefore, they significantly impact the life of those who are exposed to them. Microaggressions can take three forms: microassaults, microinsults and microinvalidations. They are several types of microaggressions: racial, sexist, albeit or ageist, or religious.
Japan has approximately 150.000 Muslims. A majority of them are immigrant Muslims, and only %10 of them are estimated to be native Japanese Muslims. This makes Japanese Muslims a minority among a minority. Although both immigrant and Japanese Muslims are quite contented with their lives in Japanese society, Japanese Muslim women are easily identified as Muslims in the society due to their hijab, and come across microaggressions from time to time. This work is an ethnographic study focusing on religious microaggressions that Japanese Muslim women encounter during their daily lives in Japan. The data is obtained during the researcher’s almost two and half years of studies in Japan, Tokyo. The participant observation, semi-structured interviews and field notes data are analysed thematically to discover the religious microaggression types of Japanese women experience and their responses towards them. It is also aimed to see to what extent religious microaggressions have an influence on their lives.
It is discovered that Japanese Muslim women encounter three types of microaggressions: being mistaken as a foreigner, underestimation of personal agency and offensive jokes. Due to a lack of familiarity with Japanese society about hijab-wearing Japanese Muslim women, they are frequently assumed to be foreigners and approached in English, and this is the first microaggression, being mistaken as a foreigner. The second one is when society assumes it is their Muslim husbands or boyfriends who convinced them for religious conversion and for hijab as well, thus, underestimating Japanese Muslim women’s personal agency. The last one is offensive jokes: jokes on stereotypes such as terrorism and jokes on their mental health. These three microaggressions affect Japanese Muslim women’s lives in four ways: frustration, efforts to prove themselves, leading double lives, and last but not least, detachment from the society. The first step is getting frustrated. Dealing with daily assumptions on them frustrates them. Next comes more serious steps. Some get into an effort of proving their decision to be correct: showing the society the rightness and/or the beauty of Islam. Some, rather than dealing with the society, prefer to hide their religious identity and continue their daily lives as secret Muslims. They do not wear hijab in front of their non-Muslim friends, family and acquaintances, but wear it while attending to Islamic events. They do not pray openly and they find excuses for not eating non-halal. They lead double lives. Lastly, some, perhaps the most serious impact of microaggressions, distance themselves from Japanese society. They leave their jobs. They do not socialise with non-Muslim friends. Due to microaggressions they experience, they detach themselves from the society.
Microaggression is still a new discussion topic among social scientists and the public. Due to the suspicions of its nature or harmful results, awareness-raising activities are not widespread enough. Therefore, in order to understand migroagression and its harmful results better, and to create more equal and inclusive societies, it is necessary to increase the microaggression studies.

Kaynakça

  • Basford, Tessa E. et. al. “Do You See What I See? Perceptions of Gender Microaggressions in the Workplace”. Psychology of Women Quarterly 38/3 (2014), 340-349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313511420
  • Capodilupo, Christina M. et. al. “The Manifestation of Gender Microaggressions”. Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestations, Dynamics and Impact. ed. Derald W. Sue. 193-216. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
  • Foley, Sharon et. al. “Perceptions of Discrimination and Justice: Are There Gender Differences in Outcomes?”. Group & Organization Management 30/4 (2005), 421-450. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601104265054
  • Freeman, Lauren – Stewart, Heather. “Microaggressions in Clinical Medicine”. Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 28/4 (2018), 411-449. https://doi.org/10.1353/ken.2018.0024
  • Gee, Gilbert C. et. al. “Racial Discrimination and Health Among Asian Americans: Evidence, Assessment, and Directions for Future Research”, Epidemiologic Reviews 31 (2009), 130-151. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxp009
  • Haidt, Jonathan. “The Unwisest Idea on Campus: Commentary on Lilienfeld (2017)”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 12/1 (2017), 176-177. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616667050
  • Harrel, Jules P. et. al. “Physiological Responses to Racism and Discrimination: An Assesment of the Evidence”. American Journal of Public Health 93/2 (2003), 243-248. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.93.2.243
  • Jana, Tiffany - Baran, Michael. Subtle Acts of Exclusion: How to Understand, Identify, and Stop Microaggressions. Kindle Edition. Broadway: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, 2020.
  • Kristen P. Jones et. al. “Not So Subtle: A Meta-Analytic Investigation of the Correlates of Subtle and Overt Discrimination”. Journal of Management XX/X (2013), 1-26.
  • Kaplin, Daniel. “Microaggressions and Macroaggressions in Religiously Diverse Communities”. The Official Journal of the New York State Psychological Association XXIX/3 (2012), 16-24.
  • Kaskan, Emily R. et. al. “Microaggression and Female Athletes”. Sex Roles 74 (2016), 275-287.
  • Keller, Richard M. – Galgay, Corinne E. “Microagressive Experiences of People with Disabilities”. Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestations, Dynamics and Impact. ed. Derald W. Sue. 241-267. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
  • Kiekens, Wouter J. et. al.“Sexuality and Gender Identity-Based Microaggressions: Differences by Sexual and Gender Identity, and Sex Assigntment at Birth Among Dutch Youth”. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37 (2022), 21293-21319. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211056729
  • Kocalan, Elif Büşra. Müslümanlaşma Sürecine Sosyolojik Bir Yaklaşım: Japon Müslümanlar. Çorum: Hitit Üniversitesi, Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, 2021.
  • Kocalan, Elif Büşra. “Four Motivations of Conversion to Islam: Japanese Muslims”. Bilimname 47 (2022), 713-754. https://doi.org/10.28949/bilimname.1066164
  • Kocalan, Elif Büşra. “Yeni Dinî Kimlik Oluşum, Şekillenme ve İfade Etme Aşamalarında Sosyal Medyanın Rolü: Japon Müslümanlar Örneği”. Bülent Ecevit Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 9/2 (2022), 227-263. https://doi.org/10.33460/beuifd.1101617
  • Lilienfeld, Scott O. “Microaggressions: Strong Claims, Inadequate Evidence”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 12/1 (2017), 138-169. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616659391
  • Nadal, Kevin L. et. al. “Religious Microaggressions in the United States: Mental Health Implications for Religious Minority Groups”. Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestations, Dynamics and Impact. ed. Derald W. Sue. 287-310. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
  • Nadal, Kevin L. et. al. “Sexual Orientation and Transgender Microaggressions: Implications for Mental Health and Counseling”. Microaggressions and Marginality: Manifestation, Dynamics and Impact. Ed. Derald W. Sue. 217-240. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, 2010.
  • Nadal, Kevin L. et. al. “Subtle and Overt Forms of Islamophobia: Microaggressions toward Muslim Americans”. Journal of Muslim Mental Health VI/2 (2012), 15-37. https://doi.org/10.3998/jmmh.10381607.0006.203
  • Nadal, Kevin L. et.al. “The Adverse Impact of Racial Microaggressions on College Students’ Self-Esteem”. Journal of College Student Development 55/5 (2014), 461-474. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2014.0051
  • Obuse, Kieko. “Living Compound Marginality: Experiences of a Japanese Muslim Woman”. Religions 10 (2019), 434-458. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10070434
  • Pierce, Chester M. “Psychiatric Problems of the Black Minority”. American Handbook of Psychiatry. ed. S. Arieti. 512-523. New York: NY Basic Books, 1974.
  • Pierce, Chester. “Stress Analogs of Racism and Sexism: Terrorism, Torture, and Disaster”. Mental Health, Racism, and Sexism. ed. Charles V. Willie et. al. 277-293. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1995.
  • Scheitle, Christopher et. al. “The Association between Religious Discrimination and Health: Disaggregating by Types of Discrimination Experiences, Religious Tradition, and Forms of Health”. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 0 (2023), 21. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12871
  • Solorzano, Daniel et. al. “Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate: The Experiences of African American College Students”. Journal of Negro Education 69/1-2 (2000), 60-73.
  • Steele, Claude M. – Aronson, Joshua M. “Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69/5 (1995), 797-811. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.69.5.797
  • Sue, Derald W. Overcoming our Racism: The Journey to Liberation. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.
  • Sue, Derald W. et al. “Racial Microaggressions and the Asian American Experience”. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 13/1 (2007), 72-81. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.13.1.72
  • Sue, Derald W. et. al. “Racial Microaggressions in Everyday Life: Implications for Clinical Practice”. American Psychologist 62/4 (2007), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271
  • Swim, Janet K. – Cohen, Laurie L. “Overt, Covert and Subtle Sexism: A Comparison Between the Attitudes Toward Women and Modern Sexism Scales”. Psychology of Women Quarterly 21 (1997), 103-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00103.x
  • Swim, Janet K. et. al. “Everyday Sexism: Evidence for its Incidence, Nature, and Psychological Impact from Three Daily Diary Studies”. Journal of Social Issues 57/1 (2001), 31–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00200
  • Swim, Janet K. et. al. “Understanding Subtle Sexism: Detection and Use of Sexist Language”. Sex Roles 51/3/4 (2004), 117-128. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000037757.73192.06
  • Tanada, Hirofumi. “世界と日本のムスリム人口-2018 年” (World and Japan Muslim Population-2018). 早稲田大学人間科学研究 (Waseda University Faculty of Human Sciences Research) 32/2 (2019), 253-262.
  • Thomas, Kenneth R. “Macrononsense in Multiculturalism”. American Psychologist 63/4 (2007), 274-275. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.274
  • Wang, Jennifer et al. “When the Seemingly Innocuous “Stings”: Racial Microaggressions and Their Emotional Consequences”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 37/12 (2011), 1666– 1678. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/0146167211416130
  • Williams, Monnica T. “Microaggressions: Clarification, Evidence, and Impact”. Perspectives on Psychological Science 15/1 (2020), 3–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619827499
  • Yosso, Tara J. et. al. “Critical Race Theory, Racial Microaggressions, and Campus Racial Climate for Latina/o Undergraduates”. Harvard Educational Review 79/4 (2009), 659-690.
Toplam 38 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Din Sosyolojisi
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Elif Büşra Kocalan 0000-0002-8051-4647

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Aralık 2023
Gönderilme Tarihi 15 Ağustos 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Din, Felsefe ve Toplum

Kaynak Göster

ISNAD Kocalan, Elif Büşra. “Microaggression and Japanese Muslim Women”. Hitit İlahiyat Dergisi. Aralık 2023. 919-937. https://doi.org/10.14395/hid.1344020.

Hitit İlahiyat Dergisi Creative Commons Atıf 4.0 International License (CC BY NC) ile lisanslanmıştır.